%ISOlat1; %ISOtech; %ISOnum; %ISOdia; %ISOgrk1; %ISOpub; %ISOlat2; ]> Foreword See notes on the electronic edition The old saw that you can't judge a book by its cover is not precisely true. Actually, it cannot be applied to the earliest known form of the book, the Codex. Many surviving Codices possess bindings which are almost an integral part of the text. Their fundamental designs and the frequent sumptuous embellishment of the covers with gold and silver mounts encrusted with jewels or semiprecious gems or enamels offer compelling insight into the contents of the books they protect. These magnificent survivors of many centuries of use and adoration are among the great bibliophilic treasures of those fortunate libraries and museums who possess them. It is a matter of great regret that in many instances the bindings have been stripped, stolen, or otherwise removed from the texts they encased, for such bindings frequently offer valid evidence of their places of execution. What would we not give to know what kind of binding originally was placed on the noble Book of Kells, since it might well have provided the missing clues to the earliest history and provenance of this great manuscript of the Gospels. In many instances certain book covers artistically admired for their craftsmanship in the use of ivory, silver, and, at a later date, leather remain as single objects, and we can only speculate about the texts they encased. We owe a great debt to the Egyptian Christians, the Copts, who most probably were the first to use leather as covers for their scriptural texts. Once introduced it became the most common material used for bookbinding throughout Europe; it was not supplanted essentially until the nineteenth century when cloth bindings became common. Velvet had, of course, been used much earlier for embroidered bindings. Early on binding developed as a craft, and it became a highly skilled craft, one which has endured to this day. Over the years as books proliferated the need for bookbinding increased; the invention of printing provided a new impetus to the craft and probably revolutionized it. The earliest printed books were issued by their printers in unbound sheets; those who purchased them arranged to have them bound according to their individual requirements. That is one of the reasons why the study and investigation of fifteenth‐century bindings can reveal such interesting details about the early history of these original covers. We know, for example, that a number of copies of Johann Gutenberg's famous Bible of 1455 were bound not at Mainz, where this Bible was printed, but at Erfurt; and we also know that one of the binders in that community was named Johannes Fogel, since one of the blind stamps used to embellish the leather stretched over the original wooden boards contained his own name. Other bindings of a slightly later period carry on their leather covers a stamp which is a recognizable portrait of an early printer, Johann de Westphalia; another group reveals the arms of the city of Cologne, providing valid evidence of the place of binding. Indeed, the study of the basic designs of early bindings and the blind stamps used to decorate them has become the object of intensive bibliographic research. The late Ernst Kyriss devoted many years of productive scholarship to documenting the sources of innumerable early German bindings carrying blind stamps. For the early years of the sixteenth century, Konrad Haebler performed a similar service by categorizing and classifying the numerous rolls used on German bindings of that period. The bindings of other countries have also received careful attention, but much more work remains to be done. It is not surprising to find early German books in contemporary Italian bindings, and early Italian printed books in German or French bindings, indicating that the book trade was quite mobile. Stylistically, it is often possible to identify early and also later bindings by their country and even their city of origin. It is also true that rich and affluent bibliophiles such as Matthias Corvinus (King of Hungary), the King of Naples, and later Jean Grolier of Lyons and Paris, one of the greatest of all bibliophiles, took great pains to have their libraries appropriately and sumptuously bound. Books from these and other great collections are easily recognized and highly prized by their present‐day owners. England and, especially, France have produced countless royal bindings of extraordinary interest and variety. The art of fine bookbinding is well represented in France, where it continues to flourish. One must not lose sight of the lacquered bindings from Islam (a separate chapter in themselves), the embroidered covers executed by English needleworkers in the seventeenth century, or the beautiful silk bindings found on Chinese and Japanese books of all periods. There is infinite variety to be found in the study of this historic craft. There is also much to be said about early binding in this country and much more to be written. Although in its earliest period it was frankly derivative and with certain exceptions can hardly be regarded as distinguished, there were attempts at refinement. There has been a tremendous interest in the history of bookbinding in this country in recent years, stimulated in part by the late Dorothy Miner's monumental exhibition of bindings, principally from American collections, which was handsomely mounted at the Baltimore Museum of Art in 1957. Over seven hundred exceptional bindings, covering more than fourteen centuries, were on display. It was a delight for all those who shared in it or saw it, and its impact is still being felt today. Another stimulant to this heightening of interest is the emphasis that has been placed recently on the preservation and restoration of all aspects of the book, including papyrus, vellum, and paper. Modern scientific approaches have introduced a new vocabulary, much of which is not readily comprehended by those whose interests are most intimately concerned with the books of all ages. The purpose of a foreword is to inform the reader, if he cares to peruse it, about the contents of the text it introduces. The text of the present book is not a history of bookbinding—although there is a great deal of history about the craft contained herein, and it also discusses the materials used, the notable binders whose names illuminate it, and other useful information. It is rather an up‐to‐date dictionary. The succinct definitions and explanations, as well as the biographical vignettes, contained in this dictionary will be a boon to those who seek this kind of information. Those concerned, whether they are practicing binders, technicians, rare book librarians, collectors, or simply laymen, will find this a welcome source of answers to their questions. Not the least of these is the one frequently asked of me during my long service in the Library of Congress as Chief of the Rare Book Division. How can I best treat the leather bindings in my personal library ? But this is only one of the thousands of questions to which this dictionary provides the ready answers. The text speaks accurately and helpfully to all those who will seek it out and profit from the immense amount of information it presents in a lucid and comprehensible form.

FREDERICK R. GOFF Honorary Consultant in Early Printed Books Library of Congress Preface Although numerous books, both theoretical and practical, have been published on the subject of bookbinding and the conservation of archival materials, there would seem to be a need for one that approaches the subject by examining the meaning and usage of the many terms, expressions, and names pertaining to the various subjects. The nomenclature of bookbinding, its offshoots and more recent progeny, has not, at least insofar as the present writers have been able to determine, been presented in a comprehensive dictionary, although various aspects of the book and its production have been explored in dictionary form, sometimes superlatively, as in the American Paper and Pulp Association's Dictionary of Paper and John Carter's A B C for Book Collectors. The authors of this volume hope that it will help fill a considerable gap in the literature of conservation, one that has for some time been all too evident. Although this dictionary is intended first and foremost for those actively involved in one or more aspects of the overall field of bookbinding and book conservation, including bookbinders, conservators of library and archival materials, and the like, it is perhaps no less intended for those working in related fields, such as bibliography and librarianship, where the many terms and expressions relating to the overall field may be less familiar and even more confusing. The compilers accept full responsibility for the selection of terms for inclusion, as well as for the even more difficult task of rejection. The definitions themselves, although herein the responsibility of the same persons, were, whenever possible, drawn from the most authoritative sources available (as indicated by the number in parentheses at the end of a definition, which refers to the Sources and Bibliography section) and supplemented by the experience of the authors. Even though the bibliography and sources cited represent but a relatively small segment of the extensive corpus of literature in the field of conservation, we believe they provide a reasonably good sampling and may benefit the reader by offering an authoritative source for the terms and sometimes providing a source for further investigation. Definitions that do not cite a source are entirely the responsibility of the authors. Where a term has more than one definition, each is numbered and arranged in its descending order of significance in relation to bookbinding. The arrangement of the dictionary is letter‐by‐letter, rather than word‐by‐word, which means that, while the placement of terms such as C‐stage, or m.m. system, etc., will be within the body of the respective letters of the alphabet, and not at the beginning, there should be no problem with locating hyphenated or one‐ or two‐word structures, such as springback, or the more accepted spring‐back, as long as the spelling of the term is known. The same is true of fore edge (correct), as opposed to foreedge (sometimes used but awkward). (Foredge would be incorrect.) Fore edge, it should be noted, is only hyphenated when used as a modifier, e.g., fore‐edge painting. The arrangement of the dictionary, then, is: head headband headbanding headbolt head box headcap headed outline tool head trim The most common (sometimes simply the most commonly encountered) form or spelling of a term has been used, e.g., myrabolans, not myrabalans, gauffered edges, not gauffred, gaufré, or goffered, with the variations in spelling being included with the bold‐faced heading. Where a term is also called by another name the synonym is given at the end of the definition, e.g.: abaca. Also called "manila hemp." adhesive binding. Also called "perfect binding" or "unsewn binding." See references have been used extensively, as have see also references, which refer the reader to other terms closely, or sometimes only indirectly, related to the term being discussed. See also references and cross references to the terms defined in this dictionary which are cited within the definition itself are set in small capitals, e.g.: forel. A grade of PARCHMENT made from split sheepskin and dressed in imitation of VELLUM. There is always the problem of the extent to which one wishes to go in defining any one term. While there may be relatively little one can say, or would want to say, about a material such as Armenian bole, or a procedure such as lengthwise lettering, one could offer quite a lengthy discourse on the finer considerations of break or the molecular structure of glue. But this is a dictionary, not an encyclopedia, a guide to the vocabulary of a field, not a compendium on a specific subject. A number of persons, both near and far, have generously contributed both their time and expertise in evaluating and criticizing this work. George Kelly, Research Scientist, Research and Testing Office of the Library's Preservation Office, read and commented on the chemical terms. Harold Tribolet, retired, formerly Manager, Graphic Conservation Department, R. R. Donnelly & Sons, Chicago, Illinois, read and offered comments on an earlier version of the work. Bernard Middleton, of London, bookbinder and historian of bookbinding and its related subjects, read and offered extensive comments on the manuscript, especially those terms relating to hand bookbinding and bookbinding history. John Chalmers, bibliophile and former Librarian of the Washington Cathedral Library, Mount Saint Alban, Washington, D.C., read the final version and wrote many pages of comments and criticism. Betty Roberts read and reread several manuscripts and proofread still others. Margaret Schaffer typed the final manuscript and also read the galleys and page proof. Our deep and heartfelt thanks to all.
a
"The front or recto side of a leaf of a book. It is called "a" when the leaves rather than the pages are numbered. The back or verso side is referred to as b." See also: FOLIATION (2).
aa pattern
The code designation for a book cloth embossed with a watered silk pattern over the T PATTERN, producing a MOIRÉ EFFECT. See also: MOIRÉ BOOK CLOTH.
abaca
A type of plantain or banana (Musa textilis), native to the Philippine Islands. The outer sheaths of its leaf stems yield a fiber used extensively in the manufacture of certain papers, e.g., saturating papers, where great strength is required. The fibers range in length from 3 to 12 mm, the average being 6 mm, and vary in thickness from 0.016 to 0.032 mm, averaging 0.024 mm. They taper very gradually towards the ends; the central canal is large, and the fine cross-hatchings are numerous. Also called "Manila hemp." (17, 323)
aberrant copy
A copy of a book that has unmistakable binding and/or printing errors and not merely simple defects. (156)
abhesive
A material having the capability of resisting ADHESION. Surfaces are coated with abhesive substances to reduce sticking, heat sealing, and the like. Silicone paper is an example of an abhesive material. (222)
abrasion
The rubbing or wearing away of a material due to contact with another material. Some very large books, manuscripts, etc., may be damaged by abrasion because of the large surface area of the leaves rubbing over one another (particularly when the publication is being opened or closed), as may the leather coverings of books when they are removed from the shelves. Dust also, is a significant cause of abrasion of book papers and covers.
abrasion resistance
The ability of materials, such as paper, board, cloth, leather, etc., to withstand the abrading action of the same or another material, e.g., other paper, dust, a book shelf, etc. The property is usually measured in terms of rate of loss of material by weight when abraded under specified conditions and length of time. See also: RESISTANCE TO WEAR. (17, 58, 72)
abrasives
Substances used to wear down or clean other substances. Abrasives may occur naturally (e.g., diamond, corundum, pumice, etc.), or be manufactured (e.g., silicon carbide, fused alumina, metallic abrasives, and the like). The hardness of an abrasive is measured by MOHS' SCALE, which is arbitrary. For numerous grinding and buffering purposes, the graded grains of abrasive are bonded together in a vitreous rubber or metallic matrix to produce grinding wheels; for hand use, the grains are bonded to paper or cloth by means of a suitable adhesive.
absolute humidity
The actual quantity of water vapor present in a given volume of air. Absolute humidity is expressed either in grams per cubic meter, or in grams per cubic foot. See also: HUMIDITY; RELATIVE HUMIDITY.
absorbency
The degree of receptivity of a material to liquids, either in liquid or gaseous form. Measures of absorbency include: 1) the time a material requires to absorb a specific volume of liquid; 2) the rate of rise of a liquid along a vertical strip of a material, the end of which is immersed in the liquid; 3) the total area of a specimen wetted by the liquid within a specified time period; and 4) the total absorptive capacity of a material expressed as the quantity of liquid absorbed by a completely saturated specimen. Absorbency is of importance because paper, for example, generally has the ability to absorb or give up moisture depending upon the wetness, i.e., RELATIVE HUMIDITY, of the atmosphere around it, and, because the effect is not uniform in all directions. Because of the latter, the MACHINE DIRECTION of the paper used in producing books becomes an important factor in both printing and bookbinding. See also: COCKLE (1); WARPING. (17, 72, 144)
absorbent papers
A group of soft, unsized papers used to soak up water and other liquids. Although not sized, the papers may be treated with synthetic resins as a method of enhancing their wet strength. Absorbent papers include blotting papers, as well as the base papers used in the manufacture of IMITATION LEATHER, VEGETABLE PARCHMENT PAPER, WET-STRENGTH PAPER, and the like. (17, 290, 324)
absorption
A term used in the adhesive industry to indicate the capillary or cellular attraction of a surface to draw off a liquid adhesive into the substrate.
acacia
A genus of woody plants of the family Leguminosae. The sap and pods of certain species, notable Acacia arabica and A. senegal, are used in the manufacture of GUM ARABIC. Acacia mimoa, A. mollisima and A. catechu (also called Borneo cutch) are also used in the tanning of leather. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (130, 175)
acacia gum
See: GUM ARABIC.
acanthus
The name given a leaf of the acanthus plant (Acanthus spinosus) introduced as ornamentation in ancient Greek architecture. It has been applied in various modified forms in succeeding styles of architecture. In bookbinding, the acanthus ornamentation is a typical impression of the finishing tool cut to represent two such leaves pointing in different directions. The acanthus decoration was also used as a decorative motif by illuminators of manuscripts, especially Carolingian artists of the 9th century. (250)
accelerated aging test
A procedure which is designed to indicate in a relatively short period of time what will happen to materials, such as paper, ink, etc., over a period of years in storage. It commonly involves heating the specimen in an oven under specified controlled conditions. Under ideal circumstances, the material is exposed to an environment which increases the rate of its degradation without changing its nature. It is generally accepted, for example, that heating paper for three days in an oven at 100° C is equivalent in its effect to approximately 25 years under normal library storage conditions. Although sound in theory, accelerated aging tests are, at this time, of limited usefulness. The reason is that conditions of storage, which vary widely, have a considerable influence on the degree of permanence; also, it is difficult to verify empirically the accuracy of such tests except by experiments conducted over a number of years. Such tests have actually been made, although to a limited extent. It is known, for example, that the strength of paper tends to diminish in storage, and experiments have indicated that the FOLDING ENDURANCE declines to a significantly greater extent than such other properties as tensile, or tearing, strength; consequently, folding endurance tests conducted subsequent to accelerated aging may well provide a good indication of a general loss of strength. In addition, as to the rate of deterioration, the effect of heat is very much like that of natural aging under average conditions; therefore, it is probably reasonable to assume that heat affords a practical means of accomplishing accelerated aging. (18, 62, 144)
accordion fold
See: CONCERTINA FOLD.
accordion-pleated fold
See notes on the electronic edition A method of folding endpapers so that the pleat provides a hinge at the inner joint of the cover. The pleat also provides for expansion to allow the covers to swing open freely and not exert strain on the first and last leaves of the book. In certain cases, however, it can also create a sharp, knife-like fold which, if wide enough, may cause a brittle leaf to bend sharply and crack at that point. (81)
account book
See: BLANKBOOK.
account-book binding
See: BLANKBOOK BINDING.
account-book paper
See: LEDGER PAPER.
acetate
The salt or ester of ACETIC ACID. See also: CALCIUM ACETATE, CELLULOSE ACETATE, POLYVINYL ACETATE.
acetate envelopes
Envelopes, usually made of transparent cellulose acetate. used for the temporary protection of documents, letters, prints, photographs, maps, etc. They are superior to paper envelopes in that they substantially reduce the danger of acid transfer. Their use, however, is declining in favor of polyester envelopes. See also: CELLULOSE ACETATE; POLYESTER FIBERS.
acetate ink
An ink with special adhering qualities intended for drawing or printing on such materials as films and acetates.
acetic acid
A volatile, colorless acid (CH3MCOOH), prepared by the oxidation of acetaldehyde, by oxidation of ethyl alcohol, or by the distillation of wood. It is used extensively in the manufacture of CELLULOSE ACETATE, and has been used for washing leather bindings to remove grease prior to tooling. Being a relatively weak organic acid, as well as volatile, it is not considered to be particularly harmful to paper or leather, and is to be preferred to ordinary vinegar in preparing leather or book edges for tooling or gilding, as vinegar is likely to contain traces of sulfuric acid. (198)
acetic ether
See: ETHYL ACETATE.
acetone
A colorless, volatile, flammable ketone (CH3COCH3), having a pleasing odor, that occurs in pyroligneous acid and can be prepared by dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol, by bacterial fermentation of corn mash, and by other means. It is miscible with water, alcohol and ether. Acetone is effective as a solvent in removing pressure sensitive tape from paper because it dissolves not only the adhesive but (in some cases) the tape itself. Its use is limited, however, because of its tendency to dissolve ink, and its highly flammable nature. In leather manufacture, it is used as a solvent for finishes. It is also used to prepare other solvents, such as methyl isobutyl ketone and mesityl alcohol, and as a solvent for paints, varnishes, lacquers, and cellulose acetate. Acetone decomposes photochemically to produce ethane, carbon monoxide and small amounts of diacetyl and methane. (173, 306)
acid
A substance capable of forming hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. The majority of inorganic acids may be regarded as compounds of an acidic oxide and water; where the oxide involved is that of a metal, it may exhibit amphoteric characteristics, i.e., act sometimes as an acid and sometimes as a base, depending upon the other materials present. Typical organic acids contain the COOH group, but other acid groupings, e.g., the sulfonic—SO3H, give acidic properties to organic compounds. Aqueous solutions of acids have a sharp taste, turn litmus red, liberate CO2, form a metallic carbonate, and evolve hydrogen in reaction with certain metals, e.g., iron. The 'strength' of an acid is measured by the value of its dissociation constant, a strong acid such as hydrochloric being substantially fully ionized in solution, and a weak acid such as formic being predominantly unionized. Acids, and particularly the inorganic acids (because of their corrosiveness and low volatility), are harmful to paper and bookbinding materials. Their presence weakens the holding power of the individual links of the cellulose chains of paper, causing brittleness; results in corrosive effects in some inks; and weakens the fibers of leather. The source of acids in archival materials may be intrinsic or extrinsic. They may be present in the materials used in the manufacture of paper, adhesives, leather, etc., and may be left in intentionally, e.g., alum-rosin sizing; they may be introduced during manufacture and not sufficiently removed, e g., acids used in clearing and/or dyeing leather; or they may gain access during storage, e.g., sulfuric acid in paper or leather, resulting from the atmospheric pollutant, sulfur dioxide (SO2). See also: ACID GASES. (72, 195, 198, 306)
acid dyes
A very large class of dyes containing acidic groups, such as the sodium salts of sulfonic acids or phenolic groups. They are more soluble and have less tinctorial value than BASIC DYES but they also have greater light fastness. See: FAST COLORS. They do not form lakes with tannin. Acid dyes are used in dyeing leather, paper, etc., and their particular value lies in their ability to produce brighter, more uniform colors. They are normally applied from an acid dye liquor (acetic, formic, or sulfuric acid); however, unless applied from a neutral or only slightly acid dyebath, i.e., pH of 6.0 to 7.0, their use is likely to result in acid degradation of the material dyed. See also: FUGITIVE COLORS; LAKE. (17, 67, 72, 363)
acid-free leather
Ostensibly, leather manufactured without the use of acids, but interpreted by most producers to mean leather from which as much acid as possible has been removed. The removal of acid used in producing leather is a costly and time-consuming process, and calls for repeated washing of the stock. Tanning agents which contain a relatively high amount of salts of weak acids, of which MYRABOLANS is one, are said to protect leather against acids used in manufacture or those absorbed from the atmosphere. (175, 306)
acid-free paper
In principle, papers which contain no free acid and have a pH value of 7.0 or greater. In practice, papermakers consider a paper having a pH value of 6.0 or greater to be acid free. Such papers may be produced from cotton fibers, rags, esparto, jute, chemical wood pulps, or virtually any other fiber, with special precautions being taken during manufacture to eliminate any active acid that might be present in the paper pulp. However free of acid the paper may be immediately after manufacture, the presence of residual chlorine from bleaching operations, aluminum sulfate (alum) from sizing, or sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere, may lead to the formation of hydrochloric or sulfuric acid unless the paper has been buffered with a substance capable of neutralizing acids. See also: ALKALINE RESERVE. (144, 198)
acid gases
Gases which may form destructive acids in paper, board, leather, and other book materials. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), present in the air as a pollutant, is one such gas; it can form highly destructive sulfuric acid (H2SO4), either by oxidizing to form sulfur trioxide (SO3), which in the presence of water vapor, is transformed into H2SO4, or by combining directly with water vapor to form sulfurous acid (H2SO), which, while a weak acid itself, reacts with oxygen to form H2SO4. It is suspected that the rate of conversion is increased by the presence in the paper of metallic catalysts, such as iron or copper, which may enter the paper during manufacture, but as yet there is no proof of this. (193, 265)
acidity
A condition or state in which the concentration of hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution exceeds that of hydroxyl ions. Acidity is probably the most important single factor affecting the permanence of archival materials. Acidity alone, however, does not necessarily connote destructiveness; the nature of the acid, i.e., the strength of its acidic properties, is of more importance than its quantity; e.g., a relatively small amount of sulfuric acid may have a greater destructive effect than a larger quantity of lactic acid. Because of this, both pH value and titration are necessary to achieve adequate evaluation of the potentially destructive effect of an acid. See also: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION. (144)
acid migration
The transfer of acid from a material containing acid to one containing less or no acid. This may occur either when the two materials are in contact with each other, or by vapor transfer from one material to nearby materials not actually in contact with it. Boards, endpapers, and protective tissues, as well as the paper covers of books and pamphlets, may contain acid and transfer it to otherwise low-acid or acid-free paper of the text. Also called "acid transfer." See also: BARRIER SHEET.
acid size
A ROSIN SIZE that contains an appreciable part of unsaponified but emulsified free rosin. If, when diluted, the rosin size produces a milky emulsion, it is then known as "white size."
acid transfer
See: ACID MIGRATION.
acid wash
A solution consisting of hydrochloric acid diluted in water. At one time it was used to clean grease and other foreign material from the edges of books prior to gilding. It was usually applied after the initial scraping and sanding, and before the final light sanding.
acme seal
The now obsolete name given a SEALSKIN, dyed and having a plain, dull finish and a natural grain.
acrylic resin
acrylic coating acrylic plastic
A thermoplastic resin prepared by polymerizing acrylic acid (C3H4O2) or methacrylic acid (C4H6O2), or a derivative of either, especially an ester, e.g., methyl methacrylate. One such acrylic resin, polymethyl acrylate, which is a tough rubbery material, is used, usually as manufactured in emulsion form, for textile and leather finishes, lacquers, and pressure sensitive adhesives, and as a mixture with clay to coat papers used in high gloss printing. (42, 364)
additives
1. Substances added in small proportions to products to improve their performance, or to enhance their attractiveness or value. Additives are also used to prevent bacterial action, drying, staling, as well as to inhibit corrosion, oxidation, decomposition, etc. 2. All of the nonfibrous raw materials used in making paper. They may be added at any point during the papermaking process or after the paper has been manufactured. Treatment of the entire sheet (internal treatment) entails mixing the additives with the paper pulp, in which case they are known as wet-end additives. If only the surface of the sheet is to be treated, the additives are applied directly to the surface of the paper, and are known as external additives. Paper additives are used to color and size paper, control pH, improve physical properties, and increase wet strength. They are also used as defoamers, dispersants, plasticizers, preservatives, retention aids, and the like. (58, 98)
adherend
A material that is held to another material by means of an ADHESIVE.
adhesion
A term indicating that two surfaces are held together by interfacial forces, which may consist of valence forces (chemical adhesion), interlocking action (mechanical adhesion), VAN DER WAALS FORCES, or combinations thereof. (309)
adhesive
A general term for any of several substances capable of bonding materials to each other by chemical or mechanical action, or both, and which may be activated by water, non-aqueous solvents, pressure, heat, cold, or other means. Adhesives may be classified by temperature (hot-, cold-, intermediate-, room-temperature setting, etc.); by type of solvent (water, alcohol, etc.); by type of application (brush, roller, spray, etc.); or by origin (animal, vegetable, or synthetic). They may be further classified as natural or synthetic (resin). The natural adhesives are primarily of animal or vegetable origin (sodium silicate (water glass) being virtually the only inorganic natural product important as an adhesive) and include animal glue, casein, blood albumen (which is unimportant as an adhesive in archival work), and vegetable adhesives. The synthetic resin adhesives include the thermoplastic resins, the thermosetting resins, and the elastomeric adhesives. The adhesives used in archival work must exhibit three properties: 1) they must wet the surfaces to be joined but not so much as to cause the adhered materials to cockle; 2) they must have sufficient flexibility so as not to crack when the joint is flexed; and 3) they must be strong but not as strong as the materials they bond, so that stress to the point of failure of the joint will not damage the archival material but will result only in the failure of the adhesive. See also: ALBUMEN; CASEIN; CEMENT (2); COLD GLUE; DEXTRIN; FISH GLUE; FLEXIBLE GLUE; GLAIR; GLUCOSE-GLYCOL PASTE; GLUE; HARD GLUE; HOT-MELT ADHESIVE; ISINGLASS; MICROENCAPSULATED ADHESIVE; MUCILAGE; PADDING COMPOUND; PASTE; POLYVINYL ACETATE; RABBIT SKIN GLUE; RESINOUS ADHESIVES; RICE GLUE; RUBBER ADHESIVES; VEGETABLE GLUE; WOOD PASTE. (48, 89, 102, 149, 186, 198, 222, 309)
adhesive binding
A method of securing loose leaves into a solid text block by means of an adhesive rather than by means of sewing, stitching, etc. In general, there are four techniques of adhesive binding in use today: 1) PADDING (2); 2) manual adhesive binding, which is still practiced by hand binders and some library binders; 3) semiautomatic adhesive binding, which is the usual method in library binderies and some paperback edition binderies; and 4) fully automatic adhesive binding, which is the usual method in edition binding. Two basic methods are used to secure the leaves in adhesive binding: 1) application of the adhesive to the edges of the collected and clamped leaves, without fanning, in which case there is little if any penetration of adhesive between the sheets; and 2) fanning the clamped leaves, either in one direction or both (in the latter case 180°), so that the adhesive is applied a slight distance onto the leaves, thus forming a more secure bond. A HOT-MELT ADHESIVE is usually employed in the first method, whereas a cold RESINOUS ADHESIVE, e.g., POLYVINYL ACETATE, is typical in the latter method. It is not unusual, however, to use a combination of the two adhesives. The resinous adhesives are generally used alone, but hot melts may be used in either a one-shot operation (hot melt alone), or in a two-shot application (a primer of polyvinyl adhesive, followed by the hot melt, in which case the leaves are usually fanned upon application of the cold adhesive). Adhesive binding generally results in a book that opens easily and lies flat. It is also a relatively economical form of binding, especially when long runs of the same edition are being bound. The method lends itself well to the mass production of low-priced paperbacks, catalogs, telephone directories, and the like. It is also finding greater use in library binding for books that are not in sections and have relatively narrow margins, as well as for rebinding books printed on paper that is deteriorating. Adhesive binding, however, is not a satisfactory method of binding coated and similar papers. Adhesive binding, in one form or another, is not a new concept; in fact, it dates back to the 1830s when William Hancock invented the so-called CAOUTCHOUC BINDING in England. Overall, however, even though the method is very practical for books that are to receive heavy use over a relatively short period, (e.g., telephone directories), adhesive binding is generally considered to be inferior to the sewn binding and its permanence has yet to be demonstrated. Also called "perfect binding." or "unsewn binding. See also: ADHESIVE BINDING MACHINE; ONE-SHOT METHOD; TWO-SHOT METHOD. (15, 16, 81, 89, 294, 320)
adhesive binding machine
A machine that applies an adhesive, and sometimes a cloth lining, to the edges of the leaves or sections of a book. Adhesive binding machines may be classified as: 1) intermittent, with all operations being performed while the book is stopped; and 2) continuous, with all operations being performed while the book is in motion. In addition, they may be classified as: 1) inline, with the books being carried in one direction at a constant elevation; 2) rotary or circular, with books being carried in a circular path; and 3) oval, with books being carried over an extended oval path. There are variations within all of these categories. Adhesive binding machines used in library binderies are generally in-line machines which operate intermittently or continuously, with the books being inserted and removed from the machine by hand. Adhesive binding machines date back to the latter part of the 19th century, but their greatest period of development was following World War II. (89, 320)
adhesive dope
A chemical solvent used as a wash for the turn-in areas of imitation-leather book cloths and other impervious materials to facilitate adhesion of the board papers. It has very limited use today.
adhesive glassine tape
A gummed glassine paper, generally of BASIS WEIGHT of 25 pounds (24 X 36 – 500). It is sometimes used in mending the leaves of books, as well as for hinges, for which purposes it is supplied in rolls of narrow width. Its use for the repair of archival materials is not recommended, as it has a tendency to stain the paper and is difficult to remove. See also: HEAT-SET TISSUE. (17)
adhesive paper
A paper coated with a water-activated, heat-activated, or pressure-activated adhesive. See: GUMMED PAPER; HEAT-SET TISSUE; PRESSURE-SENSITIVE TAPE; SE-LIN LABELING SYSTEM.
adjusted
A MARBLING SIZE that has been put into proper condition to receive the colors by the addition of OX-GALL, so that when the colors are dropped on they will spread evenly. The correct amount of gall will cause a drop of marbling color to expand to its maximum without thinning. See also: MARBLING. (335)
advance sheets
1. A copy of a book, in sheets or gatherings, for preliminary notices, simultaneous publication in two or more places, or for early cataloging. Advance sheets for review or early cataloging are usually in unbound gatherings. 2. Generally, sheets of a publication e.g., some serial publications or other documents, printed separately for use before they are issued collectively. In a stricter sense these are more appropriately called "preprints." (69, 140)
advertisements bound-in
A statement to the effect that advertisements have been included in the binding of a volume bound from parts or issues, or in the rebinding of a volume, usually a serial publication. Some libraries instruct the binder to remove all advertisements not containing subject matter (on either side of the leaf), or those that are paginated separately. This is done to save shelf space; it is questionable, however, whether sufficient space is saved to warrant the effort. In addition, the presence of advertisements can be of value to scholars and is of value to collectors.
aerosol
A dispersion in which a material is dissolved or suspended in a liquid which volatilizes to produce a fine spray when pressure is released. The spray carries the active material. Tn archival work, aerosols are used for dispersing deacidification solutions; in this case the propellant, which must be inert and nonflammable, is frequently a chlorofluorocarbon, e.g., freon 12, dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2).
against the grain
Paper which has been folded at right angles to the direction in which the fibers tend to lie, i.e., the MACHINE DIRECTION. A well-produced book always has the grain or machine direction running from head to tail so that the back or binding fold of the paper is not against the grain. Correct grain direction means that the leaves of the book will be more inclined to lie flat when the book is open. The term applies specifically to machine-made paper, as HANDMADE PAPER has no definite grain direction.
agalite
A natural fibrous form of talc, gray in color and consisting principally of hydrated magnesium silicate. It gives paper a greasy or soapy feel. and enables it to take a high finish. It is little used today. (62)
agar
agar-agar
The polysaccharides agarose and agropectin, occurring as cell-wall constituents of red marine algae (genera Gelidium, Gracilaria, etc.), from which it is extracted by hot water. It is available as a dry powder, flakes, or strips. Agar is the metallic (usually calcium) salt of a sulfuric acid ester of a complex polysaccharide of gelactose, but its exact structure is not understood. It dissolves in hot water and, upon cooling, sets to a jelly at concentrations as low as 0.5%. It is used as a gelling and stabilizing agent, as a misciformis sizing for silk, and as an adhesive emulsifying agent. (72)
agate
agate burnisher
A natural stone, consisting of a form of silica, similar to chalcedony, with colored bands of purple or brown, shaped and polished for use as a burnishing tool, particularly in edge gilding. See also: BURNISHER (2).
agatine
A marble pattern consisting of black in large spots, green in rivers, scarlet in sprinkles, and blue in small spots. Various designs are made from this combination of colors. (152) "
"agenda" format
A narrow book format, i.e., one where the height of the book is disproportionately greater than its width, to the extent of 3 :1 or greater, as compared with the usual ratio of 2:1 or 3:2. The "agenda" format proportions are similar to those of the consular diptych. The diptych was often adapted in the middle ages for use as covers of ceremonial lists and processional music, which had to be written in a format to conform with these constrictions; the "agenda" possibly stems from that format. (347)
aggressive tack
See: DRY TACK.
aging
A general term describing the natural degradation of paper, adhesives, leather, and other archival materials, while in storage. With some textiles, aging denotes oxidation by exposure to air. Aging is greatly influenced by the environment in which the materials are stored. See also: ACCELERATED AGING TEST; ENVIRONMENT; PERMANENT MATERIALS; PERMANENT PAPER; YELLOWING.
air-dried
Handmade- and the better machine-made papers dried in a current of air, either at normal or elevated temperatures, as distinguished from paper which is dried by contact with heated rolls. This method of drying reduces stresses, including DRIED-IN STRAIN, which are imposed on paper while drying, because the sheet is allowed to dry, and therefore contract, at a slower rate. See also: ANISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR. (98)
air dry
A condition usually associated with paper (and paper pulp) and leather. Paper is said to be air dry when its moisture content (usually 3 to 9%) is in equilibrium with the atmospheric conditions to which it is exposed. Leather is considered to be air dry when its moisture content is approximately 14% of the weight of the leather. Their different moisture contents in the air dry state makes it difficult to regulate the conditions of storage of a leather bound book. (17, 363)
airmail paper
A lightweight paper made for printing publications such as newspapers that are to be sent by airmail. It usually contains fillers to improve opacity, and is generally made in a basis weight of 10 pounds (17 X 22 – 500). Airmail paper is also used at times for guarding sections, mending tears, etc. For these purposes, it is preferable that the paper have a high rag content and an alkaline reserve of about 3%. (17, 58)
air permeability
The property which permits the passage of air when a difference in pressure exists across the boundaries of the material. Air permeability is one indication of a substance's porosity. See also: VAPOR PERMEABILITY. (17)
Aitken, Robert
1735-1802
One of a group of Scottish craftsmen in the bookbinding trade who immigrated to America in the years immediately before the Revolutionary War. Aitken appeared in Philadelphia in 1769, as a bookseller. He returned to Scotland that same year, apparently to learn bookbinding, because upon his return two years later he advertised himself as both bookbinder and bookseller. After 1773 he began to print books as well, and, in 1782, published the "Aitken Bible," the first complete Bible in English to be published on the North American continent. Aitken produced hundreds of bookbindings ranging in style from paper wrappers (both blue and marbled) to more or less richly gilt leather bindings. His work included blue paper boards, raised cords as well as flat spines, both plain and marbled endpapers, and bindings in full calf- or sheepskin with red title labels and gilt bands across the spines. Although Aitken produced scores of "plain" bindings, he was also capable of a binding style that was rich and luxurious in its gold tooling, especially for American bookbinding of that time. He was, in general, an imaginative and diverse bookbinder, although he was not known for his exactness and polish in finishing, nor was he particularly artistic. Because Aitkin was also an engraver, it has been suggested that he may have cut his own finishing tools, possible in imitation of Scottish designs. (45, 200, 347)
ajoure bindings
A style of bookbinding executed during the last third of the 15th century in Venice. Ajoure bindings were embellished with pierced or translucent patterns, in a manner referred to as "letting in the daylight." They generally featured openwork designs of foliage, angels' heads, satyr-masks, birds, baskets of fruits, etc. (156, 347)
à la cathédral
See: ARCHITECTURAL STYLE.
album
1. A book of envelopes or jackets, usually with a decorative cover and often with descriptive notes. It is intended to contain phonograph records. 2. A book of blank leaves designed to contain written records, clippings, postage stamps, and the like.
albumen
A class of protein found in egg whites. A mixture of egg white and vinegar (GLAIR) is used in book finishing; its purpose is to secure the gold leaf to the covering material prior to the impression of the heated tool. Albumen is also used as an adhesive in edge gilding.
album paper
A type of cover paper used for photograph albums. It is manufactured in gray and black in basis weights of 50 to 80 pounds (20 X 26 – 500). A basic requirement of this paper is that it not cockle when wetted with adhesives, while another essential requirement is that it contain no impurities which might alter or damage the photographs. (17, 324)
alchemic gold
A gold ink composition developed early in the 20th century as a substitute for imitation gold leaf. It was said to be "free from acid," as well as non-tarnishing. Its principal virtue seems to have been that it eliminated the necessity of sizing, laying-on, and rubbing off. (164, 264)
aldehyde tanning
Essentially a formaldehyde tannage. Several aldehydes react with hide protein to prevent putrefaction, but only FORMALDEHYDE has been used to any extent in the manufacture of leather. Formaldehyde is soluble in water, the resultant solution generally being known as FORMALIN. Aldehyde tanning is used principally in tanning white, washable leathers, usually sheep or lambskins, with the grain split or shaved off. Such leathers are seldom used in bookbinding. See also: ZIRCONIUM TANNING. (291, 306, 363)
alder (bark)
The bark of the common alder tree (Alnus glutinosa), used to some extent in small tanneries in southeastern Europe and Turkey for tanning leather. The bark contains 9 to 16% or more tannin, while the dried fruit yields about 16% tannin. The use of alder bark is not extensive—mainly because, when used alone, it imparts an objectionable reddish-brown color to the leather, and also tends to make the leather brittle. Other alder barks have also been used in tanning, including Alnus incana (in Europe and North America), A. nepalesis and A. nitida (in India), and A. cordata (in Italy). (175)
Aldine leaves
Small finishing stamps bearing a leaf and stem design. It was employed by the binders of Aldus Manutius, and also extensively by 19th century bookbinders on monastic bindings. See also: ALDINE (ITALIAN) STYLE. (334)
Aldine style
Italian style
A style of bookbinding originated by Aldus Manutius but not restricted to the books printed by Aldus or his family. Aldine bindings, which were produced during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, were characterized by the use of brown or red morocco; by solid-faced ornaments with no shading (which were similar to those used in printing the text); and by title or author in simple panels in the center of the upper cover, which could be read while the book lay on a shelf or table. Early examples of the Aldine style were tooled in blind with an outer frame and a center ornament. Possibly because of the Greek binders Aldus employed, as well as the fact that gold tooling (probably) originated in the Near East, Aldine tools display definite signs of Eastern origin. Early Italian bindings convey a consistent feeling of the shape and proportion of the book, which is demonstrated by: 1) the use of border and panel as schemes of design; 2) a remarkable sense of the value accorded ornamentation; 3) the areas of leather left undecorated; and 4) restraint in the decorative detail with the result that it was always in proper subordination to the overall effect of the embellishment. See PLATE IV. (124, 172, 280, 334)
algarobilla
The dry pods of a shrub native to Chile (Caesalpinia brevifolia), from which a tannin is extracted. As a tanning material, algarobilla somewhat resembles DIVI-DIVI; however, it is less prone to discolor the leather. It also produces a better weight and imparts greater firmness to leather. Algarobilla gives a light-colored tan liquor which before fermentation colors leather slightly to a light reddish yellow; however, after fermentation it produces a very bright color. It is usually blended with other tannins. Although algarobilla is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins, it penetrates the hide substance very rapidly, and has a fairly low natural pH and salts content and a relatively high acids content. The tannin content of the pods is generally in the range of 45-50%. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS, (175)
alkali
A substance which has the properties of a base, especially a hydroxide or carbonate of an alkali metal, e.g., calcium. Since all of these substances, when dissolved, increase the hydroxyl ion concentration, the term alkali is synonymous with base. An aqueous alkaline solution is one with a pH value greater than 7.0. Alkalies are used in conservation work principally in adhesives, and in deacidifying and buffering paper. See also: ALKALINE RESERVE; HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION.
alkaline buffer
See: ALKALINE RESERVE.
alkaline filler
A FILLER (2) used in the manufacture of paper. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the most commonly used alkaline filler.
alkaline process
A method of treating fibrous raw materials with alkaline solutions to liberate fibers or to purify paper pulps. Lime, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfate, and sodium sulfide are used in this process, with sodium hydroxide being used most often. It may be used in both the sulfate and sulfite processes. (17, 144)
alkaline reserve
A buffer, or reserve, of an alkaline substance added to a paper for the purpose of counteracting any acid which may be introduced into it subsequent to DEACIDIFICATION. Soaking paper in a solution of calcium bicarbonate or magnesium bicarbonate adds a small amount of calcium or magnesium carbonate which neutralizes any acid present and also provides a reserve to counteract acid which may enter the paper at some future time. (The bicarbonates are converted to the carbonates during the drying of the paper, with the liberation of carbon dioxide.) The treatment is effective only as long as free alkali remains. Papers which are to remain acid free for long periods of time, e.g., 500 years, should have approximately 3% precipitated carbonate by weight of paper. (198)
all along
all across all on
A method of sewing a book, usually by hand and generally on cords or tapes. The thread goes "all along," inside the fold of the section—that is, from kettle stitch to kettle stitch of each successive section, one complete length of thread for each section. "All along" is traditionally associated with the best method of sewing a book by hand, although books were sewn TWO ON and even THREE ON when the sections were very thin or when an economical method was required. The term is also used, somewhat incorrectly, to describe machine book sewing when each section is sewn with the full number of threads. Also called "one on" and "one sheet on." (236, 335)
alligator grained leather
A grain effect embossed on various types of leathers, such as calf, sheep, or cow, in imitation of the genuine reptilian leather. See: ALLIGATOR LEATHER.
alligator leather
A leather produced from the skin of any member of the reptilian order Crocodilla. Generally, only the belly area of the animal is used, the heavily scaled back being too course and horny. The beauty of alligator leather stems in part from the fact that the scales have a natural "enamel," which, originally, was usually destroyed by crude tanning methods. Later it was preserved, and even enhanced, by "plating" the skin with heated metal plates which gave it its high glaze. Alligator leather is very durable and also very expensive. This term is largely confined to the United States; in Europe it is generally called "crocodile leather." (351, 363)
all on
See: ALL ALONG.
all-over style
1. A style of finishing in which the entire cover, as distinct from the corners, center or borders, is decorated by a single motif, multiple motifs, or a decorative roll. 2. Any pattern in a book cloth which runs both across and down the roll. (130, 156)
alpha cellulose
That part of a cellulosic material that is insoluble in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 20° C. under specified conditions. While alpha cellulose consists principally of cellulose, it does include other components that are insoluble under the test conditions. Because the permanence of paper depends to some extent on the absence of non-cellulosic impurities, the determination of true cellulose (alpha cellulose) gives an indication of the stability of the paper, and therefore its permanence. See also: BETA CELLULOSE; CELLULOSE; GAMMA CELLULOSE. (17, 72, 144)
alpha grass
See: ESPARTO (GRASS).
alpha protein
A soy bean protein used in the manufacture of adhesives that are to be combined with casein glues, or used for coating paper.
alum
A salt used in papermaking and in the TAWING of skins. True (potash) alum is chemically a double salt of aluminum, or potassium aluminum sulfate (K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O). The papermaker's alum in use today is not true alum, but either aluminum sulfate (A12(SO4)3 . 14H2O), (Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O), or a mixture of these hydrates, and is manufactured by treating pulverized bauxite with sulfuric acid. It is soluble in water, and, while slightly alkaline in the dry form, it is decidedly acidic when dissolved in water. Alum has two major functions in papermaking: 1) to control pH; and 2) because of its floculating ability, to retain other additives in the paper, notably the sizing agent. ROSIN is a basic material used in sizing paper today. As a sizing agent it imparts water (ink) resistance to paper; however, in order for the rosin to be able to impart water resistance it must be rendered insoluble, which is the function if alum. Although the full role of alum in the sizing of paper is not completely understood, one of its functions is to make rosin come out of solution (precipitate) while it is in close contact with the fibers of the paper-making slurry. The fibers are thus coated and impregnated with a solid and water-resistant mixture of rosin and what is probably a compound of rosin and aluminum oxide. Although the excessive use of alum is considered detrimental to the permanence of paper, the papermaker tends to overdose with alum rather than underdose, so as to avoid soft-sizing. In addition, alum is considered by some papermakers to be a panacea for other troubles, such as frothing, sticking of the paper web to the wet presses of the papermaking machine, etc. Overdosing with alum leads to excessive acidity and, under certain circumstances, may lead to severe deterioration of the paper. While alum is not a particularly strong acid, in the presence of certain other substances it can assume a greater strength. Chlorides, which may be present in the paper as a result of bleaching processes, or natural to the water itself, can be particularly harmful. Excessive alum, in the form of aluminum sulfate, may react with chlorides present to form aluminum chloride (AlCl3), which in the presence of moisture and heat, will form hydrochloric acid (HCl)—one of the most powerful of all acids in its effect on cellulose. Alum is sometimes used in solution to wash the leaves of books; in the past it was added to paste to act as a preservative, or as a hardener to render the dry paste less water soluble. It is also used at times as a mordant for marbling colors. See also: ALUM WATER. (32, 43, 72, 195, 236)
aluminum leaf
A bright leaf or foil made of aluminum and often substituted for silver in blocking edition bindings. While it tarnishes less rapidly than silver, it lacks the appearance of richness and depth of silver leaf. It is also less expensive. (83, 140)
aluminum sulfate
A salt of aluminum (Al2(SO4)3), occurring naturally in considerable quantities in alumstone (alumite) and feather alum. It is manufactured by treating bauxite with 80% sulfuric acid at 110° C., the resulting solution being purified, concentrated, and allowed to solidify. See also: ALUM.
alum-size bath
A size bath consisting of ALUM dissolved in water and used by some restorers to remove coffee, tea, blood and some ink stains from paper. (335)
alum-tawed skin
alum "tanning" alum-tawed "leather"
See: TAWING.
alum water
ALUM dissolved in water and used to sponge paper and the edges of books before laying on the marbling colors. The alum acts as a binding medium, attracting and securing the ox-gall and colors to the paper. It also acts as a mordant and is also useful in counteracting excessive gall. (161, 264, 335)
American leather
An obsolete term for one of the varieties of enameled cloth made to imitate leather. See also: IMITATION LEATHER. (256)
American marble
A drawn marble pattern usually used on the edges of stationery bindings, and consisting of black, blue surrounding the black, yellow on the blue, and red on the yellow. The marble is drawn in the same manner as the comb NONPAREIL MARBLE, with an additional drawing of the comb the width of the trough. (264, 339)
American Russia
An imitation RUSSIA LEATHER produced from cowhide or the hide of the American buffalo (bison). It is usually a straight-grained leather. Also called "Russia cowhide."
amorphous
A term applied to adhesives, with reference to their non-crystalline structure.
amylaceous
Pertaining to, or of the nature of STARCH; starchy. See also: PASTE.
amyl acetate
A colorless, volatile liquid ester (C7H14O2) that is very slightly soluble in water, but miscible in alcohol and ether. It is used as a solvent for CELLULOSE ACETATE. Although at one time it was believed to have a preservative effect when applied to leather, it is much too volatile to have afforded lasting protection, even if initially effective.
anchoring
See: TYING DOWN. See also: HEADBAND.
anglos
An imitation RUSSIA LEATHER made in Great Britain from cowhide. See also: AMERICAN RUSSIA. (343)
anhydrous
A term normally used with reference to the chemical salts and solvents, lanolin, etc., meaning that they are free of water.
anhydrous lanolin
See LANOLIN.
aniline
An aromatic primary amine (C6H5NH2). It is a derivative of ammonia in which one hydrogen atom is replaced by the phenyl group. It is manufactured by the reduction of nitrobenzene with iron filings and either hydrochloric acid or ferrous chloride, and subsequent steam distillation after the addition of lime. Aniline is an oily, colorless, toxic liquid, which darkens upon exposure to air. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and forms a number of salts. It is the base from which a great number of intermediates for dyes are prepared, including dimethylaniline and diethylaniline, which in turn yield many so-called BASIC DYES, such as methyl violet, methyline blue and malachite green. (195)
aniline dyed
A leather that has been dyed by immersion in a dyebath and has not received any coating or pigment finish. (61)
aniline dyes
A class of synthetic, organic dyes originally obtained from aniline (coal tars), which were, in fact, the first synthetic dyes. Today the term is used with reference to any synthetic organic dyes and pigments, regardless of source, in contrast to animal or vegetable coloring materials, natural earth pigments, and synthetic inorganic pigments. Aniline dyes are classified according to their degree of brightness or their light fastness. Basic dyes are known for their extreme brightness, as well as for their lack of COLOR FASTNESS. Aniline dyes are used to impart color to paper, cloth, leather, etc. Also called "coal tar dyes." See also: ACID DYES; BASIC DYES; DIRECT DYES; DYE; LAKE. (17, 164, 343)
aniline ink
An inexpensive volatile printing ink consisting of a dyestuff dissolved in a methylated spirit and bound with a resin. It is considered to be a very fast drying ink. Aniline inks are considerably inferior in permanence to many other types of ink, and are also subject to smudging by water. Although all colors are available, they are lacking in COLOR FASTNESS. (144)
aniline leather
A hide or skin that has been tanned with a vegetable material and then colored either by immersion in a dyebath or by staining, and has not been coated or pigmented. Leather so colored has a depth of coloring said to be superior to pigment coloration. (351)
aniline stained
A leather that has been colored by brushing, padding, or spraying, but which has not received any coating or pigmented finish.
animal glue
See: GLUE.
animals-in-foliage panel
A form of decoration consisting of a PANEL (1) divided in half vertically, each half containing curving foliage with an animal within each curve. (250)
animal size
See: SIZE. (2, 3)
animal sized
A paper sized with a gelatin or glue (and sometimes alum, which acts as an insolubilizer). The gelatin or glue-and-alum solution acts as a preservative and enhances the water resistance of the paper. Generally, only high-grade writing papers, bonds, ledgers, and handmade paper are animal sized. See also: SURFACE SIZED; TUB SIZED. (17, 82, 316)
anionic (substances)
Substances, such as dyes, tannins, oils, etc., that dissolve in water and ionize so that the characteristic ion (dye, tannin, oil, etc.) is the anion and carries a negative charge. They tend to precipitate with CATIONIC (positive charge) SUBSTANCES. (98, 306)
aniseed
The seed of anise (Pimpinella anisum), which produces a pungent oil once used as a preservative for paste.
anisotropic behavior
A material, e.g., paper, that exhibits different properties when tested along axes of different direction. Because paper is hygroscopic, a change in the dimension of its fibers takes place when the relative humidity around it changes; the change is transmitted to the entire sheet, with the result that its length and width are increased or decreased. As the majority of the fibers in machine-made paper lie in the direction of the moving wire of the papermaking machine, i.e., the MACHINE DIRECTION, by far the greater expansion or contraction of dimension of such a paper is in the CROSS DIRECTION, sometimes being on the order of 1.5 to 4.0 times that in the machine direction. Paper exhibits anisotropic behavior basically because of two factors: 1) as stated above, the orientation of the fibers in the machine direction causes them, and therefore the sheet, to expand or contract preferentially in the cross direction. In fact, at one time it was thought that this was the major reason for anisotropic behavior in paper; 2) more recently, however, although orientation of the fibers is still thought to play a role in the behavior, the major reason is considered to be built-in strain, also known as dried-in strain. The matting of fibers formed from the wet slurry on the wire of the machine moves into the dry end of the papermaking machine and is dried rapidly in the drier sections. Because it is wet, the web will contract during drying. Because the tension of the web is in the plane of the machine direction, the paper is able to contract considerably in the cross direction but not in the machine direction, which results in a built- or dried-in strain. The drying is actually so rapid that relaxation of the strain is impossible on the machine, nor does it occur after the web of paper leaves the machine as the dried paper does not have sufficient plasticity for this to happen. Consequently, a machine-made paper has an inherent dried-in strain. Actually, there is some dried-in strain in the cross direction also, as the felts of the machine reduce shrinkage somewhat in that direction. This characteristic results in an anisotropic sheet, one which will expand more in the cross direction than in the machine direction when exposed to an increase in the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere. If, at some time in the future, the paper is wetted in water, the dried-in strains will be released and, if the sheet is then allowed to dry freely and without restraint, its anisotropic characteristics will be largely lost. Anisotropic characteristics in paper are of great importance in printing, especially in printing processes which involve wetting the paper.
annatto
A yellowish-red coloring material obtained from the pulp surrounding the seeds of the annatto tree (Bixa orellana), and sometimes used in coloring leather and cloth. It is soluble in both alcohol and oil. Its lack of COLOR FASTNESS makes it unsuitable for archival use.
antelope-finish suede
A fine, soft leather having a velvety, lustrous nap. It is produced from lamb-, goat-, or calfskin, sueded on the flesh side and finished to resemble antelope leather. (61)
antiblocking agent
A substance used in either a coating mixture or as an overcoating to prevent one sheet of paper from adhering to another, or to any other object, within a specified range of temperature and humidity. Antiblocking agents are usually waxes or synthetic polymers; a light dusting of talcum powder is sometimes used for the same purpose.
antichlor
A substance used in removing the remaining traces of free chlorine or hypochlorite not removed from a paper pulp by washing. Typical antichlors include sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3) and sodium thiosulfite (Na2S2O3). The antichlor is usually added to the pulp stock near the end of the bleaching stage, and is allowed to react until no blue coloration is obtained with a potassium-starch indicator. This removes the last traces of hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ion, and free chlorine. The reaction products are then washed out. Antichlors are seldom used in multistage bleaching operations, as they are considered to be wasteful of bleaching agents. (72)
antifoam agents
See: DEFOAMERS.
antimony
A metalloid element (Sb) that is usually a metallic silvery white, but is also found in the black amorphous form. It has been used since at least the late 17th century to blacken the edges of books, especially Bibles, prayer books, and the like. See also: BLACK EDGES.
antique
A term used to describe: 1) BLIND TOOLING; 2) a marble pattern (See: ANTIQUE MARBLE); 3) a form of edge decoration (See: ANTIQUE EDGES); 4) leather finished with an old or natural grain- and 5) a paper with a natural rough surface or finish. See: ANTIQUE BOOK PAPER.
antique binding
1. A modern binding executed in the style of some earlier period, but generally with no intent to deceive. See also: CONTEMPORARY BINDING (2). 2. See: ECCLESIASTICAL BINDINGS.
antique book paper
A book paper generally produced in the United States from bleached chemical wood pulp with a large amount of short-fibered pulp and given a soft, relatively rough finish. In Great Britain it is produced largely from ESPARTO (GRASS) pulp. Antique book paper varies from lightweight to relatively heavy weight; 60 pound, basis weight antique bulks approximately 330 pages to the inch. Many books, and particularly novels, are printed on this type of paper, especially those containing only textual matter and/or bold line drawings. Antique papers generally are not suitable for fine line drawings or half-tone illustrations. (17, 72)
antique cover paper
A cover paper with an antique finish.
antique edges
antique style
A further embellishment of the edges of a book following gilding. It involves applying gold of a different hue, e.g., LEMON gold, over the gilded edge, with the design being worked into the overlaid gold; the untouched (new) gold then is rubbed off. Sometimes the effect of antique edges is produced without the designs if the original gold is left unburnished, or is burnished and then washed with water. The technique is seldom employed today. See also: GAUFFERED EDGES. (241, 343)
antique grain
A surface pattern on leather consisting of markings or creases, usually irregular, in which the hollows or valleys are given a contrasting color to produce a two-tone or two-color effect. The creases are produced either by EMBOSSING (1) or BOARDING (1). (61)
antique marble
A series of marble patterns executed by dropping red, black 7 and yellow, or red, blue and yellow, on the marbling size, and raking once up and down; this is followed by an application of green coloring and, if the pattern is to be an antique spot, pink or green spots. Finally, there is a sprinkling of white. Other colors are also used. The antique marble is produced in a variety of patterns, including spots, straight, and curled. (369)
antique tooling
See: BLIND TOOLING.
a pattern
A cloth pattern with a long, narrow grain. Cf: J PATTERN; L PATTERN.
apparent density
The weight per unit volume of a sheet of paper. It is calculated by dividing the BASIS WEIGHT of the paper by its caliper. The value so derived depends upon the definition of a ream, i.e., whether 480, 500, 516, etc., sheets. See also: DENSITY; SPECIFIC GRAVITY. (17)
apparent specific gravity
The weight of a given volume of leather divided by the weight of an equal volume of water, making no allowance for voids or air spaces in the volume of leather measured. See also: SPECIFIC GRAVITY. (363)
appliqué work
A design on EMBROIDERED BINDINGS consisting of spirals in gold and silver which, when flattened, give the appearance of a series of rings. They were sometimes used as a border. When the applique was not very large, a variation was to make a series of small stitches along all edges, masking the stitches with an overlaid gold cord. (111)
apron
1. The lower cloth on a ruling machine that carries the ruled sheets from the lower cords to the lay-boy or receiving box. 2. The extra amount of unprinted paper left to serve as the binding edge of a leaf that folds out. See a1so: FULL APRON.
aqua regia
A mixture of nitric acid (HNO3) and hydrochloric acid (HCl), in a solution of one part of the former to three parts of the latter. Aqua regia was used in making so-called "killed spirits," largely in the 18th century, to impart a wine-like tint to red marbling color. The "killed spirits" were produced by adding a block of tin to the acid solution, which resulted in the formation of tin chloride (HNO3 + HCl + Sn = SnCl + NO2 + H2O) (152)
aqueous
Containing water, or water based. Adhesive systems such as starch, dextrin, natural gums, animal glue, etc., as well as some inks, certain deacidification systems, leather tannins, bleaching solutions, and the like that use water as the carrier are aqueous systems.
arabesque
A relatively old form of book decoration, revived by French gilders and reintroduced into England in about 1829. It consists of interlaced lines and convoluted curves arranged in a more or less geometrical pattern. The name derives from the fact that it was brought to its highest perfection by Near Eastern artists. The term is also used to describe a style of ornamentation in relief, consisting of fanciful human or animal figures combined with floral forms. Arabesque is also sometimes inappropriately applied to the embossed designs on book covers. (181, 241, 342)
arabesque plates
Solid brass plates cut, usually in intaglio, with a design and imprinted on a leather cover by means of a blocking press, or large fly embossing press. (152, 181)
arabic gum
See: GUM ARABIC.
arabic numerals
The numerical symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, as distinguished from the Roman I, X, L, etc., so called because of their origin in the Near East. They have been used in the foliation of books since the late 15th century. Arabic numerals first appeared in European manuscripts in the 12th century, although they probably came to the Near East by way of India in the 8th century. Arabic numerals are commonly used for paginating the text of a book, although Roman numerals are still often used for preliminary and end matter, despite the obvious affectation. (156)
archil
A dye obtained from certain lichens of the genera Roccella and Lecanora by means of fermentation. Its hue varies from moderate red to dark purplish-red, depending on whether the dye bath is acid or alkaline. It was used in the past in the manufacture of purple marbling color. It has only moderate COLOR FASTNESS. (97, 152)
architectural motif
A form of decoration consisting of a pattern of straight lines running almost the length of the cover and connected alternately at head and tail by heavier horizontal lines. (130)
architectural style
A 16th century style of finishing consisting of architectural motifs—porticoes, moldings, columns, pediments, arches, and the like. The central feature was a pair of columns supporting an arch under which there was a panel for lettering of the title. This style, of which only a relatively few examples have survived, generally emphasized straight and curved fillets, interspaced with shaped tools. The 19th century French bookbinder JOSEPH THOUVENIN revived the style as "a la cathedral.' See: CATHEDRAL BINDINGS. The contents of the books bound in the architectural style seldom related to architecture. (140, 347)
Argentina, Conradus de
See: CONRADUS DE ARGENTINA
Armenian bole
A friable, earthy clay, usually of a red color due to the presence of iron oxide; it consists essentially of hydrous silicates of aluminum and (sometimes) magnesium. It is used as a coloring material and is also applied to the edges of books during gilding. In the latter use it serves both to provide a base for the gold leaf and to impart to it a greater depth and luster. When mixed with paste and a small amount of oil, it may be used to sprinkle the edges of books. (335)
arming press
A small hand BLOCKING PRESS, at one time used for impressing ARMORIAL BEARINGS on the covers of books, but now used for blocking short runs of edition bindings, as well as in miscellaneous binding work. (203, 278)
armorial bearings
Solid plates of brass, engraved in relief with family heraldic insignia, and used to block insignia on the covers of books belonging to prominent and/ or royal families. Armorial bearings have been seldom used in the decoration of bookbindings since the middle of the 19th century. (128, 262, 347)
armorial bindings
armorial panels
Leather or cloth bindings embossed with armorial seals or plaques, frequently in a panel, or embroidered bindings in which the arms were raised in relief and worked in thread. (69, 342)
art binding
A term sometimes used to describe a book that has been bound by a master craftsman in the "best manner," using only the finest materials available. The term is applied only to books bound by hand and covered in leather or vellum, and usually only to those bindings that are unique or at least distinctive in design. (373)
art canvas
A relatively heavy book cloth, usually impregnated, which may be a single or double WARP and is sometimes lined with tissue paper to prevent penetration of adhesives. It has been used for covering large, heavy books, as well as library bindings. (264)
artificial gold
See: IMITATION GOLD.
artificial grain
A grain pattern embossed or rolled into a leather, usually in an attempt to imitate a superior type of leather. See also: BASIL; GRAINED UP. (335)
artificial leather
See: IMITATION LEATHER.
art linen
A relatively heavy cloth of a generally flat and uneven color, and usually impregnated. When art linens are produced with a design, the patterns are usually florid and ornate. (204)
art paper
1. A good quality paper used by artists and conservators. It has a highly finished, smooth surface produced by supercalendering or by coating. Its principal characteristic is its close formation. In Great Britain, "art paper" is considered to be a body paper or board coated with a mineral substance, such as barium sulfate or china clay, which gives it a smoothness that is suitable for the printing of fine halftones, and the like. In the United States, art paper is generally made from chemical wood pulp, while in Great Britain the best art paper is made from 90 to 95% esparto and 5 to 10% chemical wood pulp. Esparto is good because it is less likely to stretch and has a natural affinity for coating materials, which gives it a superior surface for halftone reproductions. Heavily coated art papers are prone to cracking, flaking, and pulling away of the coating. The binding of books produced on such papers can be difficult because of the tendency of the paper to crack when folded. Cf: IMITATION ART PAPER. 2. A fancy figured paper used for endpapers in edition binding. (17, 58, 182, 287)
art parchment
A thick, heavy, hard-sized paper manufactured from cotton fiber and/or chemical wood pulps. To some extent it has the natural appearance of PARCHMENT. It is used for documents, or in other applications where a heavy paper is required; in the latter half of the 19th century it was used as a cover paper. See also: DOCUMENT PARCHMENT (1). (17)
art vellum
A relatively thin book cloth, which, although impregnated, has only moderately good wearing qualities. It is a smooth cloth with a textured pattern printed on a white base fabric. Art vellums were used extensively for the sides of half- and quarter-bindings. (105, 205)
asbestine
A mineral compound of almost pure fibrous magnesium silicate, which possesses physical characteristics between those of talc and asbestos. It is used as a LOADING (1) agent in paper manufacture, particularly for blotting papers and board. (17)
ash
ash content
The inorganic residue remaining after a sample of paper is burned, driving off combustible and volatile compounds. The "ash content" is defined as the percentage the residue is of the original weight of the sample. (17, 98)
"as is"
See: BIND AS IS.
assembly time
A term used in the adhesive industry to indicate the time lapse between the application of an adhesive and the application of heat, pressure, or both. See also: CLOSED ASSEMBLY TIME; OPEN ASSEMBLY TIME. (309)
assiette
A compound consisting of bole, bloodstone, and gelena (lead sulfide, PbS), used to prepare the edges of books for gilding. See also: GLAIR.
A-stage
An initial stage in the reaction of some thermosetting resins wherein the resin continues to be soluble and fusible. "A-stage" is characterized by an initial lowering of viscosity. Also called "Resol. ' See also: B-STAGE; C-STAGE. (309)
asterisk
The symbol (*) used to mark a corrected page (CANCEL) supplied to the binder to replace an incorrect leaf (CANCELLAND).
atlas
A volume consisting of maps, with or without descriptive material, which is issued to supplement or accompany a text, or is issued independently. An "atlas" is also defined as a volume of plates, engravings, etc., illustrating any field of knowledge. Atlases are sometimes difficult to bind because of narrow margins, stiff and/or heavy paper, or foldouts.
atlas folio
The largest of the folios, with dimensions of approximately 25 or 26 x 17 inches. See also: ELEPHANT FOLIO.
atlas paper
A large size of drawing paper similar to map paper except that it is usually coated and made in a basis weight that is heavier so as to minimize SHOW THROUGH. Originally, the term referred to a paper suitable for printing maps and atlases; today, however, MAP PAPER is the more commonly used term. (17)
attaching boards
The process of gluing the tapes and spine-lining material to the inside of single boards or between SPLIT BOARDS, or the LACING-IN of the cords through holes drilled or punched in boards. In general, it is the binding process of joining the boards to the text block; it is not to be confused with CASING-IN. In edition and library binding, the term has no meaning other than gluing the boards to the covering material, either by hand or by means of a CASE-MAKING MACHINE. (236, 335)
attapulgite clay
A fibrous claylike material, essentially ((OH2)4 Mg5Si8O20(OH)2 -- 4H2O), rich in magnesium, and used as a filling material in papermaking, usually in coatings for reproduction papers. The clay is also called "fuller's earth," from its ability to remove dirt and grease from wool, a process called "fulling." (17)
aureole
A light or luminous area surrounding the blind impressions of a book cover; it is caused by the leather not being wetted all over, but only on the areas being tooled.
author's binding
A copy of a book to be presented by an author. Such bindings were normally produced in a superior manner; gilt vellum bindings were common in the 16th century, and panelled morocco in the 1 7th and 18th. The term has little meaning today. (69)
automatic clamping
A term used with reference to the clamp of a cutting machine, which descends upon any height pile to be cut and exerts approximately the same clamping pressure for all heights and types of material. (145)
automatic spacing
The BACK GAUGE of a cutting machine that moves forward a pre-determined distance following each cut. It is most effective in cutting long-run, large-sized sheets requiring many cuts. (320)
automatic stitcher-feeder machine
A bookbinding machine that gathers and inserts a number of folded sheets and stitches them through the folds. The sheets are either fed by operators to the carrier saddle at various stations, or are fed automatically. As each folio is carried along the saddle, another is fed over it at each station until the section or book is complete. When the section reaches the end of the machine it is automatically knocked even, saddle stitched and delivered to a receiving trough. (179)
aux petits fers
See: PETITS FERS.
available chlorine
The amount of chlorine (usually about 35%) in the bleaching powder used by papermakers in bleaching paper pulp, that can be relied upon for bleaching purposes. (197)
avaram (bark)
A tree (Cassia auriculata) found in India, the bark of which is one of the most important sources of indigenous tannin of the Indian Subcontinent. The bark usually has a tannin content of approximately 18%, along with about 10% soluble non-tans. Avaram has long been used extensively by Indian tanners, and it is because of it that the extensive Madras export trade in light-tanned or half tanned leathers was established. Although WATTLE (BARK) has largely superseded it in the tannage of cattle hides, avaram is still in great demand for the tannage of goat- and sheepskins, i.e., "East India kips." Avaram is self-bating and penetrates the skin rapidly, producing a pale colored, tough, elastic leather. Used alone, the leather is likely to develop a reddish color when exposed to sunlight; however completion of the tannage with MYRABOLANS prevents this from happening. Avaram is considered to be an ideal tannin for the preparation of half tanned skins or kips that are to be shipped elsewhere for finishing. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
awl
A pointed tool used in bookbinding for piercing holes in paper for fold sewing, side sewing, or for punching holes in boards preparatory to lacing-in. Awls are available with different points and shapes for different uses; a straight, relatively blunt awl is used for punching holes in boards, while a curved and relatively sharp one is used in sewing. (183)
azured tool
A finishing tool with closely spaced parallel lines cut diagonally across its surface—so called from the use of heraldic illustrations of thin horizontal lines to indicate the color blue. The tool appears to have been introduced in France in about 1545. (59)
b.a
An obsolete designation for a pattern in book cloth resembling linen weaving.
babul (bark)
A tree (Acacia arabica) found in India and Africa, the bark of which yields one of the most important indigenous tanning materials in the Northern areas of India and Pakistan. The average tannin content of the bark is about 12%, along with about 8% soluble non-tans. Babul is one of the condensed class of tannins, and, when used alone, tans very slowly and produces a leather that is somewhat harsh and dark in color, but firm and durable. It is usually used along with MYRABOLANS to improve color and reduce other undesirable characteristics resulting from the use of babul alone. In recent years the use of babul bark has declined in favor of WATTLE (BARK). See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
baby calf
A CALFSKIN leather produced from small, lightweight skins of calves that have not been weaned. It has a smooth or fine-boarded grain surface and is free of any artificial surface pattern. The finish is glossy and is produced by ironing, glazing, or plating. Baby calf is fairly tough leather with a dermal network of fine, even texture. See also: VEAL. (61)
back
1. See: SPINE. 2. To shape a ridge or shoulder on the sides of the spine of a text block after sewing. See: BACKING. 3. The main portion of a HIDE (1), obtained by cutting off both sides of the belly and the head. 4. Boards composed of plies of different stock, the side of superior quality being called the "top" and the other side the "back."
back boarding
The process of BOARDING (1) leather with the flesh side in for the sole purpose of softening it.
backbone
SPINE (2) of a book.
back cornering
See illustration The process in bookbinding of cutting away a small triangular piece of the head and tail edges of the boards of a book at the joints. The cut is made at two angles, one to the board edge and the other to the thickness of the board. The amount removed and the angle of the cut are determined by the width of the leather turn-ins and their thickness where they meet the edge of the board. The purpose of back cornering is to relieve the strain on the joints of the book when the covers are opened; otherwise, a strain would occur because of the additional thickness of the leather caused by the turn-ins. Back cornering also facilitates setting and shaping the headcaps. Back cornering was at first done on the inside of the boards, allowing for "laced-in" headband cores or tabs. By the late Middle Ages, back cornering was a standard procedure for books with folded-down or stubbed cores. The modern method of cornering on the outside surfaces of the boards facilitates the current method of headcapping and probably stems from the 18th century. (237, 335)
back cover
See: LOWER COVER. 2. The outside surface of the lower cover of a publication, such as a periodical issue. The term is used here with reference to publications that contain printed or illustrative matter on the outside of the cover.
backed
1. A book that has had its spine shaped to create the shoulders to receive the boards. See: BACKING. 2. A damaged leaf of a book, either text or plate, that has been "laid down on" or adhered to silk, paper, linen, plastic film, adhesive film, etc., for reinforcement. See also: NYLON. 3. See: REBACKED.
back edge
The left-hand or gutter of a RECTO (1), corresponding to the right-hand edge of a VERSO (1). The opposite edge is the back edge of publications that read from right to left.
backed-filled finish
A type of finish used on cotton cloth. The filling material is applied to the "back" side of the cloth to supply the required body and finish, and does not appear on the "top" or exposed side. (269)
backer
backing machine
A hand- or power-operated machine used for BACKING books. The backer stems from the days when a book was rounded by hand and then placed in the backer to quickly form the shoulders for the boards. Today, in both edition and library binding, the most common method is to round and back books in two consecutive operations in a ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE. Unusually large books, which will not fit in a machine, are generally backed by hand or in a hand-operated backer. See also: JOB BACKER. (256, 264)
back folds
The folds of the sections of a book, through which they are sewn. or otherwise fastened to one another. In context, they are sometimes referred to simply as folds. See also: SECTION (1). (237)
back gauge
A movable device on a cutting machine against which the pile of paper or board is placed when measuring the line at which the material is to be cut.
back gluing machine
An edition binding machine used to glue up the spines of books and automatically convey them along a drying section which quickly sets and hardens the glue. The maximum size book that can usually be processed in such a machine is 12 by 9 inches, and the minimum 3 by 2 inches, with a thickness up to 2 1/2 inches. A fully automatic back gluing machine can process up to 2,400 books an hour. See also: TRIPLE LINER AND HEADBANDING MACHINE. (343)
backing
See illustration The process of shaping a ridge or shoulder on each side of the spine of a text block prior to the application of the spine lining material. The backs of the sewn sections or leaves are bent over from the center to the left and right until shoulders are formed against which the boards will fit. The dimension of the shoulders is determined by the thickness of the boards to be used, which, in turn, is determined by the size and bulk of the book. In addition to providing for the boards, backing also:1) allows for the swell of the spine caused by the thread used in sewing, or by excessive guarding; 2) helps maintain the round of the book by the fact that each leaf from the center outward is folded over the leaf next to it so that it cannot work its way forward and thus cause the hook to cave in (See: START); 3) helps impart more flexibility to the book by creating a slight crease in each leaf near the spine, to the extent that backing has something of a scoring effect which makes the book easier to open and facilitates turning the leaves (See: SCORE); and 4) makes a better joint for the cover, one which opens easier and is stronger, since the point of strain during opening is spread over a strip of the covering material, e.g., a FRENCH JOINT. Furthermore, the angle of conformation of the spine caused by backing probably provides for better vertical standing support of the text block. Backing may be accomplished by hand with the use of a BACKING HAMMER or, in the case of edition and library binding, by means of a ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE. In some cases e.g., very large books, backing may be done in a BACKER as a separate operation. Some authorities consider the backing of a book to be the most important and difficult of all the processes in the craft of hand bookbinding, and poor or inadequate backing is certainly one of the major sources of problems in the processes of edition and library bookbinding. Although books dating from at least as early as the beginning of the second half of the 15th century were often rounded, backing for the purpose of forming shoulders seems not to have been an established procedure before 1500, or perhaps somewhat later. It is uncertain when bookbinders discovered that rounding and backing was a superior bookbinding technique. The swell caused by sewing sometimes causes books to assume a slight round with no effort on the part of the bookbinder, and, over a long period of time, the pressure of the boards perhaps even results in the effect of backing. (209, 236, 335, 339)
backing boards
The boards used in hand binding to assist in BACKING a book. Backing boards are generally made of a very hard wood and are frequently faced with strips of metal. The upper edge of the board is beveled at an angle of approximately 80°, over which the outer sections or leaves on both sides of the text block are bent. The board is also thicker at this edge than at the lower, so that when it is placed on the side of the text block near the spine and secured in the LYING PRESS, the force of the press is concentrated nearest the spine. (92, 183, 335)
backing flannel
A heavy cloth material used at times to line the spines of larger books. A more common technique today is to use two linings, usually a first lining of cloth over which is applied a paper lining See also: SPINE LINING FABRIC. (27, 196)
backing hammer
A heavy iron hammer with a short handle, heavy face, and wedge-shaped head, used in rounding and backing books. It is sometimes referred to as a "collet hammer" or "bumping hammer" See also: BACKING; ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE. (335)
backing iron
See: BACK-MOLDING IRON.
backing paper
See: INLAY (1); SPINE LINING PAPER.
backing press
A vertically oriented press with steel plates brought together by means of a single screw. The top edge of each plate is beveled to an angle of approximately 80°, so that when the plates are closed on the text block, the press serves the same function as BACKING BOARDS. (25)
back lining
See: SPINE LINING.
back margin
The INNER MARGIN, or the margin between the point where the sections or leaves are joined and the edge of the print. In books that read from left to right it is the left-hand margin of a printed recto, corresponding to the right-hand margin of the verso. Also called "gutter margin." (102)
back mark
The disfiguring ridge or "mark" in a sheet of paper which has been dried on a pole or line. Also called "pole mark," or "stick mark."
back-molding iron
See illustration An implement, usually made of iron, approximately 20 inches long, 6 inches wide and 2 1/2 inches thick, and used in forming the millboard for the SPRING-BACK of a book. The iron is made with several grooves of various widths on both sides. (264)
back saw
A short, fine-toothed hand saw stiffened by means of a metal rib along its back edge. It is used to saw-in the kettle kerfs and the grooves for sawn-in cords. Although almost any small saw will suffice in lieu of the back saw, it has the advantages of being short, stiff and easy to hold. It must be very sharp to avoid tearing the paper. Also called "tenon saw."
backstrip
1. A term used incorrectly with reference to the SPINE of a book. See also: REBACKED. 2. See: GUARD (1). 3. See: INLAY (1).
back to fore edge
The distance from the spine to the fore edge of a book. The term is probably used mainly to indicate that a book is of uniform thickness across its width. i.e., that the boards are parallel. The implication is that there has been proper compensation for any swelling of the spine caused by sewing or excessive guarding. See also: BACKING; CONVEX COVERS. (335)
bacterial resistance
The resistance of a material to the growth of bacteria and/ or mold. This property represents one of the more significant advantages of resinous adhesives over the conventional adhesives. (258)
bactericide
A material used in small concentrations, e.g., 0.1% by weight of the material being treated, to kill, or inhibit the growth of, bacteria that may occur in liquid or solid adhesives, or may attack carbohydrate or proteinaceous adhesive films. (222)
Badier, Florimond
fl 1645-1660
A Parisian bookbinder, apprenticed to Jean Thomas in 1630, who became a master bookbinder in 1645. His name is associated with the art of POINTILLÉ (1) and sumptuous doublures. Badier also used a distinctive finishing stamp cut in the shape of a man's head. Only three signed bindings of his are known; many bindings attributed to him may be the work of imitators. At one time, Badier was considered by some authorities to be the legendary LE GASCON; this was largely because of his pointillé style. (73, 347)
bagasse pulp
A paper pulp obtained from the crushed stalks of sugar cane (usually considered to be Saccharum officinarum), following the extraction of the juices. The pulp is prepared for use by mechanical disintegration in water, either with or without chemical treatment. The pulp produced is coarse. bulky, and of low strength, and is used principally in the manufacture of boards. (72)
bag binding
An additional protective covering provided a book. It is usually made of leather. See also: GIRDLE BOOK. (104)
Bagguley, Thomas
An English bookbinder, of Newcastle under Lyme, who, in the late 19th century, devised a method of tooling vellum and similar materials in permanent colors. Bagguley limited his technique to vellum, as he considered leather to be too lacking in purity of color to offer a satisfactory ground for unrestricted color decoration. Because of the delicate nature of his work, he further restricted his technique to vellum doublures. See also: SUTHERLAND DECORATION. (94)
ball tool
A small finishing tool cut in the shape of a ball.
bamboo
A giant grass of the tribe Bambusseae, located in the tropical areas of the Eastern Hemisphere, and cultivated successfully in some parts of the southern United States. The fibers are not unlike those of straw in many aspects. Bamboo fibers have an average length of 2.4mm., which puts them between the softwood and hardwood fibers. It is used extensively in India for the manufacture of all grades of chemical pulp and paper. Paper made from it is relatively soft and bulky, with a high tearing resistance but relatively low burst and tensile strength. Although writing and printing papers are produced from 100% bamboo pulp, superior results are realized when the bamboo is blended with other pulps that increase burst and tensile strength. Bamboo is also the traditional material used in making molds and other devices used in the manufacture of handmade paper. (17, 143)
band board
A wooden block about 9 by 12 inches, 6 inches thick at the head and 5 at the foot, on which headbanders in library binderies used to lay their zinc boards with dampened headbands, prior to attaching them to the text blocks. (256).
band driver
A blunt, chisel-shaped tool, usually made of wood, and used in hand binding to attain uniformity and also to correct any irregularities of the bands on which the book is sewn. See also: BAND NIPPERS. (94, 261)
banding
See: BANDS (2).
band nippers
See illustration Pincers which have broad, flat jaws, used for straightening the bands of a book sewn on raised cords, and also for nipping up the leather during covering. The better nippers are nickleplated or made of stainless steel to avoid discoloring the leather, and are equipped with a spring to keep the jaws open when in use. (161)
band pallet
A type of PALLET (1) used to impress a complete design on the spine of a book between the raised bands. Sometimes called a "butterstamp." (97)
band pattern
A device, generally made of brass, with holes drilled indicating the position of the bands of books to be sewn on raised cords. (264)
bands
See illustration 1. The cords or thongs on which the sections of books are sewn. They may be raised for FLEXIBLE SEWING, sawn-in for RECESSED-CORD sewing, or FLEXIBLE NOT TO SHOW. Early bands (or thongs, as they were originally called) were made of leather, which was not very durable, or tawed skin, which was very durable. Leather thongs began to be replaced by cords during the latter years of the 16th century. Hemp and linen cords are commonly used today. Sewing on raised bands came into use in England sometime between the 12th and 13th centuries, although the technique had been introduced into northern Europe centuries earlier. The first raised band sewing was on double bands, ranging in number from two to five. The bands were positioned so that there was a greater space between the bands themselves than between the top and bottom bands and the head and tail of the book. Single bands began to replace double ones and, by the mid-16th century, had become predominant in the more economical styles of binding. 2. Strips of reinforcing material (usually leather) which extend across the spine, or spring-back, and onto the sides of a book, usually a stationery binding. The bands may be placed on the boards before covering, in which case they are called "underbands," or over the covering material, where they are known as "overbands." Bands are used to strengthen large blankbooks in the area of the joints, and to provide additional leather at areas of heavy surface abrasion. They also protect, to some extent, the lettering on the spine of the book. When overbands are used, they are generally decorated in some manner, usually in the design of their lacing or riveting; this step is needed because adhesive alone will not keep the overbands attached to the book. In the case of underbands, the decoration of the covering leather is often concentrated around the area of the bands. The size and position of the bands, both over and under, are based on definite proportions of the cover of the book. Bands may be single, double, or double straight. When single bands are used, the cover is divided into 19 equal parts. Each band is 3/19 the length of the cover, and there are 3/19 the cover length between the bands. The top and bottom bands are each 2/19 from the head and tail edges of the cover, respectively. All three bands extend into the cover 2/5 of its width. Double bands, in addition to providing additional strength across the spine, also provide an additional thickness of leather along the edges of the boards. These bands are more complicated than single bands, as the bands at head and tail are equal to 5/19 of the length of the cover, with 2 of the 5/19 bands extending the full width of the cover, while the other 3/19 extend only the customary 2/5. The center band also extends 2/5 the width. With double band there is no space between the bands and the head and tail of the boards. A variation of the double band is the double straight. In this technique, the length of the cover is divided into five equal segments. Each band is 1/5 the length of the cover. The head and tail bands extend the full width of the cover, while the middle one extends the customary 2/5. Bands were also used to some extent in limp vellum binding, in which case the bands were sewn through the sections of the book. The use of bands as a technique for strengthening bindings has been practiced since at least the 14th century. At one time they were commonly referred to as "Russia bands" because of the use of RUSSIA LEATHER in making them. 3. Lines in gold or in blind impressed by means of a pallet across the spine of a book sewn on recessed cords in the same positions as would be occupied by the raised bands used in flexible sewing. 4. False bands attached to a HOLLOW BACK book or a TIGHT BACK book sewn on recessed cords, in imitation of flexible sewing. 5. The strips of brass attached to the tail edges of the covers of large blankbooks, for the purpose of protecting the leather covering from wear. 6. A form of decoration consisting of wide parallel lines with ornaments impressed between them. (83, 123, 152, 236, 241, 256, 264, 343)
bands frayed
The cords (bands) of a book which have been separated (frayed out) into individual threads. The frayed out cords, which extend out from the text block 1 to 2 1/2 inches, are glued between split boards, and are frayed out so as to avoid bulging of the boards. Cf: LACING-IN. (25)
bandstick
See illustration 1. A hard, smooth length of wood, frequently beechwood, used in pressing and smoothing the leather over the bands on the spine. The bandstick may consist of a narrow strip having a smooth sharpened edge on one side, in which case it is used to work one side of a band at a time, or it may be grooved so that the stick fits over the band. The latter type may have graduated grooves on both sides to accommodate bands of varying widths. 2. A tapering length of hard, smooth wood, used in pressing and smoothing the leather on the spine between the raised bands. Also called "rubbing-up stick." (232, 264)
barium carbonate
A white compound (BaCO3), insoluble in water. The use of BARIUM HYDROXIDE in the deacidification of paper results in the formation of barium carbonate as the alkaline reserve in the paper, due to the action of atmospheric carbon dioxide on the barium hydroxide.
barium hydroxide
A white, toxic alkali (Ba(OH)2), formed by the reaction of barium monoxide with water, or by the action of sodium hydroxide on soluble barium salts. It is one of the agents used in the non-aqueous deacidification of paper.
barium sulfate
A white, soluble, heavy compound (BaSO4), obtained either from the natural mineral barytes, or by chemical treatment of barium with sulfuric acid, and used both as a filler and coating pigment in paper manufacture, particularly photographic papers. It is used alone or in combination with other pigments. It has good affinity for ink, a bright color, and good opacity. It does not, however, produce a high finish. It is also used to form the pigment LITHOPONE. The artificial compound is also known as "blanc fixe." (72)
bark
1. The outer surfaces of trees and other woody plants. The inner side of the bark of certain trees, e.g., birch, has been used in the past as a surface for writing. Bark books were rather common in Central Asia and the Far East until comparatively recent times. Bark is vulnerable to dampness and curling in climates of high relative humidity and to cracking in dry areas. 2. See: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (102)
barkometer
An instrument used to measure the weight of a vegetable tannin liquor per unit volume.
bark skiver
A vegetable (oak bark) tanned sheepskin, light tan in color, and used extensively in the 19th century as a covering material for law books. It is not considered to be either permanent or durable. See also: LAW SHEEP.
bark tanned
A general term used to indicate a leather that has been vegetable tanned mainly by means of tannins derived from the bark of trees as distinguished from mixed tannages. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS.